The Pyramids

Topics in this section: old kingdom pyramids | middle kingdom pyramids | nubian and late pyramids
The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt

The primal archetype of the Egyptian obelisk and pyramid was the sacred Ben-Ben stone in the temple of Heliopolis, the oldest centre of the sun cult. The original stone at Heliopolis, symbolising the primeval mound, was believed to have been the point at which the rays of the rising sun first fell. The gilded capstone of the pyramid, which would sit at the apex, or the tip of an obelisk was known as a ben-benet.

Whilst most people tend to relate pyramids with the great Old Kingdom complexes of Giza and Saqqara, there are in fact over a hundred pyramids in Egypt, which span a period of a thousand years, and many of these are relatively unknown to most people. All but a very few are grouped around and near Cairo, just south of the Nile Delta. Only one royal Egyptian pyramid is known further south, built by Ahmose, founder of the 18th dynasty and the New Kingdom, at Abydos, however over 180 further pyramids were also built in Nubia over the course of another millennium.

Old Kingdom Pyramid complexes

	The Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara - 3rd Dynasty. The first pyramid funerary complex designed and built by Imhotep. Developed initially from the earlier rectangular mastaba tombs, the step pyramid was gradually extended and elaborated until it became a superstructure. Made of 6 giant steps, it contains many chambers, including a heb-sed court.
	The Lost Pyramid of Sekhemkhet at Saqqara - 3rd Dynasty. This unfinished pyramid complex is the largest of a series of "lost" pyramids. Discovered in 1952, the underground portions of this pyramid complex have yet to be fully cleared. Over 700 stone vessels have been found, together with a 3rd dynasty treasure cache that included 21 gold bracelets. The complex bears a close resemblance to that of Djoser's Step Pyramid, both in layout and design.
	The Pyramid of Meidum - (late 3rd) 4th Dynasty. Originally thought to be built by Huni, the last king of the 3rd Dynasty, but now considered to be the work of his son-in-law Snefru. Intended to be geometrically true - loose stones were added to the steps before the pyramid was encased in limestone which eventually collapsed, revealing the original stepped core of the superstructure.
	The Pyramids of Snefru - 4th Dynasty. [1] The Bent Pyramid of Dahshur. Probably the first pyramid to be conceived as a "true" pyramid from the onset. This pyramid owes its characteristic bend due to the marked change of angle part way up the profile, from 54o 27' in the lower part, to 43o 22' in the upper part. The explanation for the shape of this pyramid has been much argued.
	[2] The Red Pyramid of Dahshur. The first successful "true" pyramid of Snefru was constructed with a constant angle of 43o 22' throughout. The Red pyramid (or northern pyramid) was known as "Snefru appears in glory". It was probably in this northern pyramid that Snefru was buried. With such resources available to him, Snefru was able to leave a strong inheritance to his son Khufu.
	Pyramids of Giza - 4th Dynasty. Snefru's son Khufu took his father's achievements to the very apogee of pyramid building by the construction of the Great Pyramid complex at Giza, the largest surviving pyramid. It stands alongside the smaller pyramids of Khafre and Menkaura, and the three pyramids of Khufu's queens.
	The Mastaba el-Faraun, Saqqara - 4th Dynasty. The mastaba is situated in the south of Saqqara in an isolated area. It is the tomb of Shepseskaf, who was the last Pharaoh of the 4th Dynasty and the son of Menkaure. Unlike his immediate predecessors and his successors, Shepseskaf chose the form of a mastaba rather then a pyramid for his tomb. It's quite possible he was responsible for the completion of his father's pyramid at Giza. Shepsekaf ruled for only a very short time, maybe as little as four years.
	Pyramid of Userkaf, Saqqara - 5th Dynasty. Userkaf was considered to be the founder of the 5th Dynasty. His pyramid was called "Pure are the (cult) places of Userkaf", but today it is little more than a ruined heap of rubble. Possibly for political reasons as well as the religious ones, he sited his pyramid in the shadows of Djoser's Step Pyramid. Userkaf's pyramid was most likely built in horizontal layers, and rough local limestone was used in the pyramid's core, with a fine, while limestone casing.
	The Pyramids of Abusir - 5th Dynasty. Abusir, a short distance north from Saqqara is a necropolis consisting of several 5th Dynasty pyramids as well as a sun temple and a number of mastaba tombs. Userkaf, founder of the 5th Dynasty and at least four of his successors built monuments here. Originally fourteen pyramids on the site, now only four remain standing.
	The Pyramid of Sahure at Abusir - 5th Dynasty. Sahure was the second pharaoh of the 5th dynasty. His pyramid complex was the first built at the new royal burial ground at Abusir, and marks the decline of pyramid building, both in the size and quality, though many of the reliefs are very well done. it was excavated in the early 1900s, and a great amount of fine reliefs were found to an extent and quality superior to those from the dynasty before.
	The Pyramid of Neferirkare at Abusir - 5th Dynasty. The brother of Sahure, much of his complex was later incorporated into that of Nyuserre. Unfinished and in poor condition, this pyramid complex is best known for the large amount of papyri found in the mortuary temple, which provided valuable evidence regarding the organisation of royal funerary cults in the Old Kingdom. He built a sun temple, but no trace of this has yet been discovered.
	The Pyramid of Niuserre at Abusir - 5th Dynasty. Probably the last pyramid to be built at Abusir, Nyuserre's burial place is located between the pyramids of Sahure and Neferirkare, built against the north wall of Neferirkare's mortuary temple. Known as "The places of Niuserre are enduring", some experts believe that Niuserre may have also usurped Neferirkare's valley temple, as it is built on the foundations of Neferirkare's temple.
	The unfinished pyramid of Raneferef at Abusir - 5th Dynasty. The first examination of the unfinished pyramid was made by Ludwig Borchardt in the early 1900's. Probably because he died young, Raneferef's pyramid had not progressed beyond the lower levels, and rising only 4 metres, it was converted into a mastaba type tomb. Recent excavations have unearthed interesting finds and a hoard of papyri which are still being studied.
	The Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara - Late 5th Dynasty. The last ruler of the 5th Dynasty Unas seems to have been the first to inscribe the pyramid texts on the internal walls of his pyramid. The standard of workmanship in pyramid building declined along with the political and economic structure of the Old Kingdom.
	Pyramid of Teti I at Saqqara - 6th Dynasty. Teti was the founder of the 6th Dynasty. His pyramid was discovered in 1853 by Mariette, but it is mostly a pile of rubble in constant danger of being covered by the sand. Rather ironically it is called "Teti's (cult) places are enduring". The valley temple of Teti's pyramid, together with the 300 metre long causeway leading to the mortuary temple have yet to be archaeologically investigated.
	Pyramid of Pepi II at Saqqara - 6th Dynasty. Pepi II's pyramid in South Saqqara was the last to be built in the best traditions of the Old Kingdom. It was named "Pepi's life is enduring", which indeed it was, for he reigned for many years. Pepi II was the last ruler of Egypt's 6th Dynasty, and in fact the last significant ruler of the Old Kingdom prior to the onset of the First Intermediate Period. His mortuary complex was built and decorated in what is considered to be a much poorer manner than those of his predecessors.

The Pyramid Complex

In purely architectural terms, pyramids can be divided into two broad types: the step pyramid and the true pyramid. The first step pyramids appear to have evolved and developed from the royal and private mastaba tombs of the early Dynastic Period, but by the early 4th Dynasty the first true smooth sided pyramid had been built by Snefru at Dahshur.

The full scale pyramid complex consisted of a true pyramid with mortuary and valley temples, a causeway between the two, and usually a number of smaller subsidiary pyramids. Fully evolved by the beginning of the 4th Dynasty, the origins of the pyramid complex can be seen in the royal tombs and funerary enclosures at Early Dynastic Abydos and the step pyramid at Saqqara.

The Pyramids of Abusir, which date to the 5th Dynasty, are regarded as the peak of development of the standard pyramid complex even though their architectural quality and size are far less impressive than the Pyramids of Giza. As the economic and political structure of the Old Kingdom declined, so did the standard of workmanship of the pyramid complex, and by the First Intermediate Period, the pyramid complex had all but disappeared.

The Middle Kingdom Pyramids

Topics in this section: old kingdom pyramids | middle kingdom pyramids | nubian and late pyramids

The Middle Kingdom Pyramids

During the First Intermediate Period when unified rule gave way to rival principalities, pyramid building had practically ceased. However, the form of the pyramid complex was revived once more during the Middle Kingdom by the 12th Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhet I (1991-1962 BC). Amenemhet I also established a new tradition with pyramid building. Previously, the name of the pyramid complex In the Old Kingdom had included all the associated structures and temples (such as the mortuary temple, the valley temple etc) but from Amenemhet's time onwards, each of the major components of the complex were given their own individual name.

Pyramids tended to be built with a stone core and a framework of rough blocks. This framework would then be filled with a combination or mixture of mudbrick, debris and sand. Finally, the outer surface would be faced with fine tufa limestone, creating a finished effect not unlike the great stone pyramids of the Old Kingdom. However the use of mudbrick construction is always a problem with regard to the preservation of a structure, and once the outer casing of limestone had been removed, the pyramid was in effect "unprotected" and would deteriorate badly. This is why most of the Middle Kingdom pyramids today resemble little more than heaps of rubble.

Middle Kingdom pyramid complexes

	Pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht - 12th Dynasty. The first ruler of the 12th Dynasty, Amenemhet's pyramid today stands mostly in ruins that only rise about 20m above ground level. The pyramid had a limestone core with a loose fill of sand, debris and mudbrick and an outer casing of fine tufa limestone. Relief blocks from Old Kingdom monuments were used to line the passageways of the pyramid, and like many of these Middle Kingdom pyramids, the underground burial chamber is flooded and remains unexplored.
	Pyramid of Senusret I at Lisht - 12th Dynasty. Located on a prominent hill near the Fayoum oasis, Senusret's pyramid complex is on the scale larger then many Old Kingdom pyramids. Local limestone was used in the core, and a block framework was then filled with fragments of limestone, sand and waste material. Backing stones rest on the steps, and a casing of fine white limestone was used to finish the pyramid. The burial chamber is flooded and has never been excavated.
	Pyramid of Amenemhet II at Dahshur - 12th Dynasty. Located east of the Red Pyramid at Dahshur, Amenemhet's "white pyramid" was built much like that of Senusret I's pyramid, with a core that had corners radiating out. A framework was made with horizontal lines of blocks to form a grid, or framework between the corners. Here, though it was filled with sand and today the remains bear more resemblance to a cluster of small hills than a major pyramid complex.
	Pyramid of Senusret II at Lahun - 12th Dynasty. Senusret II's pyrmiad known as "Senusret shines", is located near Fayoum, rather than at Dahshur where his father's pyramid is. It was first investigated by the Lepsius expedition in the 1840s, but was only later examined in detail by Petrie. Like so many Middle Kingdom pyramids, only the deteriorated inner core now remains. Dozens of papyri were discovered at the nearby pyramid town which gave fascinating insights into the social and economic life of the time.
	Pyramid of Amenemhet III [1] at Dahshur - 12th Dynasty. The "black pyramid" of Amenemhat III is now nothing more than a pile of rubble. Originally called "Amenemhat is mighty", it was constructed with a core of mudbricks and encased in limestone, but the usual internal stone structures were not used, and this may be the reason for its eventual collapse. In 1990, a fine grey granite pyramidion (cap stone) was discovered in the rubble, which is now on display at the Egyptian museum, Cairo.
	Pyramid of Amenemhet III [2] at Hawara - 12th Dynasty. Amenemhet III was the last powerful ruler of the 12th Dynasty, and the pyramid he built at Hawara is believed to have been his final resting place. At Hawara there was also the intact (pyramid) tomb of his daughter, Neferu-Ptah. This pyramid and the large mortuary temple here attracted the attention of several classical writers including Herodotus in the mid 5th century. Unfortunately the classical descriptions of this ancient marvel no longer match the modern day remains.
	Pyramid of Senusret III at Dahshur - 12th Dynasty. Senusret's pyramid far surpasses the pyramids of his predecessors in the 12th Dynasty in size and represents another developmental milestone in pyramid design. Whilst little was discovered in the burial chamber - it had been robbed in antiquity, tombs located to the north revealed significant finds of jewellery, and there are at least three queen's pyramids located to the south. Six wooded funerary boats were also discovered on the site.

Middle Kingdom pyramid builders

	Amenemhet I's pyramid, built at el-Lisht was similar to the Old Kingdom pyramids but smaller. The inner core was built with small limestone blocks (many taken from ruined Old Kingdom monuments at Giza and Abusir) and the exterior was faced with white tura limestone, long since stolen. The mortuary temple has also been largely destroyed. Access to the pyramid is unfortunately denied by ground water seepage.
	Senusret I. Amenemhet I's son Senusret I also built his pyramid at el-Lisht, about a mile south of his fathers. His burial chamber is also inaccessible because of ground water. Nine small pyramids belonging to royal ladies were also built within the complex.
	Amenemhet II. Senusret I was succeeded by his son Amenemhet II who built his pyramid at Dahshur, to the east of the earlier 4th Dynasty pyramids of Snefru. All that now remains of his pyramid is a great mass of eroded mudbrick which was originally the core of a pyramid some 263 ft/80m square.
	Senusret II built his pyramid close to the Fayoum Oasis at Lahun (see above). Flinders Petrie excavated four shaft tombs on the south side of the pyramid that belonged to Senusret II's family and in one of these, discovered the "Lahun Treasure" that included a fine, gold inlaid uraeus that may have come from the king's mummy.
	Senusret III the great military campaigner built his pyramid in the Middle Kingdom cemetery at Dahshur. At 350 ft/107m square it is the largest of the Middle Kingdom Pyramids, but as is the case with most of these pyramids, the outer casing has been removed, and the inner core has deteriorated badly. Excavated in 1894-95 by Jacques de Morgan, finds included some fine jewellery from the tombs of Senusret's queen and his sister.
	Amenemhet III was the last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, and little is known about his successors, Amenemhet IV and Queen Sobeknefru. There is a possibility that two pyramids located at Mazghuna, 3 miles south of Dahshur may belong to them, although this cannot currently be confirmed for definite.

The Nubian Pyramids

Topics in this section: old kingdom pyramids | middle kingdom pyramids | nubian and late pyramids

The Nubian Pyramids

The kingdom of Kush, as Nubia was known to the Ancient Egyptians, grew from a trading post established on Egypt's periphery around the time of the Middle Kingdom. During the early New Kingdom, Nubia became a province of Egypt, but Egyptian control was later lost when the state declined into rival principalities. During the time of the Third Intermediate Period, a Kushite dynasty emerged from Thebes, led by a ruler called Kashta, from Napata in Nubia.

Nubian pyramids at Meroë	Nubian pyramids at Nuri

Kashta's successor Piye (Piankhi) led a campaign and claimed kingship of Upper and Lower Egypt. Kings of the rival simultaneous dynasties apparently then submitted to his leadership.

The pyramids at el-Kurru

The first Nubian pyramids were built at the site of el-Kurru, 13km downstream from the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal. The site at el-Kurru contains the tombs of Kashta and his son Piye (Piankhi), five earlier generations, together with Piye's successors Shabaka, Shabatko and Tanutamun, and 14 pyramids of the queens. Taharqa (c.690-664 BC) built his pyramid on the new site at Nuri, but his successor Tanutamun (c.664-656 BC) returned to the site of el-Kurru.

Between 1918 and 1919, American Egyptologist George Reisner conducted excavations at el-Kurru, where at that time only one pyramid remained standing. Reisner discovered low mounds of rubble, under which were the tombs of Piye and his successors of the 25th Dynasty, Shebaka, Shebitku and Tantamani. Their tombs had once been covered by pyramids, but by the early 20th century, they had been entirely removed. Reisner also discovered the tombs of 24 horses and 2 dogs nearby.

At Piye's tomb, steps led down into a small part-subterranean rock-cut burial chamber where his body had been placed on a bed atop of a stone bench in the middle of the chamber. Fragments of canopic jars were discovered, along with some shabti figures, suggesting that the body had been embalmed in a typical ancient Egyptian style. There had been a chapel built above the stairway to the burial chamber, but like the pyramid, it too had been completely destroyed. Piye's tomb marked the first of over two hundred pyramids that would be built at three sites in Nubia.

The pyramids at Nuri

Located on the opposite bank of the river from Jebel Barkal, the cemetery at Nuri contained the tombs of 21 kings, together with 52 queens and princes. Taharqa, the penultimate king of the 25th Dynasty was the first king to build his tomb at Nuri, and it is the biggest pyramid ever built at the site. Nuri pyramids were much larger than the earlier pyramids at el-Kurra, reaching heights of 20-30m, and were built using blocks of local red sandstone. The last king to be buried at Nuri died around 308 BC.

The Nubian pyramid field at Nuri continued to receive the bodies of the royalty until about 308 BC. Afterwards, the site of Meroë, further south between the fifth and sixth cataracts rose to prominence as a royal cemetery.

The pyramids at Meroë

With the exception of three or four generations of pyramids near Jebel Barkal, Meroë remained the Royal Cemetery for around 600 years. Pyramids were built from stepped courses of masonry blocks of local red sandstone, and have survived the test of time rather well. The first known major king to build his tomb at Meroë was Arkamaniqo (sometimes referred to as Arikakaman, and known to Diodorus as Ergamenes). He ruled at about the same time as Ptolemy II in Egypt.

All the tombs at Meroë have been plundered, most infamously by Italian explorer Giuseppe Ferlini who smashed the tops off 40 pyramids in a quest for treasure in the 1820s. Despite the destruction he caused, Ferlini found only one cache of gold, the contents of which are now housed at the museums in Munich and Berlin.

The re-emergence of the pyramid after such a significant interval is an interesting case of the transfer of an architectural idea from one region and culture to another. The Nubian pyramids are much smaller, far more numerous and considerably more standardised than those of Egypt's classic pyramid age. Their angle of inclination is severely sharper than that of the true pyramid at 52^o51'. In fact the Nubian pyramids distinctly resemble the private "mini" pyramid tombs of the New Kingdom at Deir el-Medina and Abydos.

The rulers of the 25th Kushite Dynasty

· RULER ·	· THRONE NAME ·	· BURIAL ·
Piye (Piankhi) c.747-716 BC	Men-kheper-re "The manifestation of Re abides"	Pyramid at el-Kurru
Shabaka (Piye's brother) c.716-702 BC	Nefer-ka-re "Beautiful is the soul of Re"	Pyramid at el-Kurru
Shebitku c.702-690 BC	Djed-ka-re "Enduring is the soul of Re"	Napata
Taharqa (Shebitku's brother) c.690-664 BC	Nefertem-khu-re "Nefertem is his protector"	Pyramid at Nuri
Tanutamun (Taharqa's cousin) c.664-656 BC	Ba-ka-re "Glorious is the soul of Re"	Pyramid at Nuri