| Topics in this section: | religion in ancient egypt | gods and goddesses | the afterlife | mummification | astronomy | the temple | funerary texts |
The magical texts that decorated the tombs of the ancient pharaohs of Egypt would provide a detailed roadmap of the what the Egyptians believed to be the Netherworld. Most of these were derived in some manner from the much earlier Old Kingdom Pyramid Texts developed by the Kings of the 5th and 6th Dynasty.
Whilst a number of tombs are said to contain the whole text of one or more of these funerary books, as yet no one tomb appears to have the entire text of any single book. Some tombs have most of the text, whilst others simply have passages from the books. From the Ramessid period onwards, the underworld and the heavens received new attention. The commonly used names of all the books are of modern origin, and these books include:
The Pyramid Texts
Pyramid Texts are the oldest collection of religious spells known to us from ancient Egypt. This collection forms the basis of much of the later religious theology and literature of ancient Egypt. The passages were eventually separated and categorised as well as illustrated, and eventually evolved into the Book of the Dead, or more properly, "The book of the coming forth by day". The oldest of these text come from that Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara. However, the first Pyramid Text that were actually discovered were from the Pyramid of Pepi I.
The Pyramid Texts
Pyramid Texts are the oldest collection of religious spells known to us from ancient Egypt. This collection forms the basis of much of the later religious theology and literature of ancient Egypt. The passages were eventually separated and categorised as well as illustrated, and eventually evolved into the Book of the Dead, or more properly, "The book of the coming forth by day". The oldest of these text come from that Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara. However, the first Pyramid Text that were actually discovered were from the Pyramid of Pepi I.
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Pyramid of Unas at Saqqara, late 5th dynasty The last ruler of the 5th Dynasty, Unas seems to have been the first to inscribe what became known as the Pyramid Texts on the internal walls of his pyramid. The inside walls of his tomb chamber are covered with inscriptions. |
The Coffin Texts
The Coffin Texts superseded the Pyramid Texts as magical funerary spells at the end of the Old Kingdom. Although they are principally a Middle Kingdom phenomenon, there are examples of the texts appearing as early as the late Old Kingdom period. Previously, the right to be embalmed and the prospect of a guaranteed afterlife were restricted to royalty and nobility, but the introduction of the Coffin Texts eliminated the exclusivity of the Pyramid Texts. They were inscribed on the coffins of both the royalty and the common people who could afford them, usually painted in columns of cursive hieroglyphs on the inside. The texts were usually found on the coffins of Middle Kingdom officials and their subordinates, although the spells are also found inscribed on tomb walls, stelae, canopic chests, papyri and even mummy masks.
The Coffin Texts superseded the Pyramid Texts as magical funerary spells at the end of the Old Kingdom. Although they are principally a Middle Kingdom phenomenon, there are examples of the texts appearing as early as the late Old Kingdom period. Previously, the right to be embalmed and the prospect of a guaranteed afterlife were restricted to royalty and nobility, but the introduction of the Coffin Texts eliminated the exclusivity of the Pyramid Texts. They were inscribed on the coffins of both the royalty and the common people who could afford them, usually painted in columns of cursive hieroglyphs on the inside. The texts were usually found on the coffins of Middle Kingdom officials and their subordinates, although the spells are also found inscribed on tomb walls, stelae, canopic chests, papyri and even mummy masks.
There are over a thousand spells, and many of these were derived from the earlier Pyramid Texts. Part of the Coffin Texts known as the "book of the two ways", is a guide to the Underworld, and includes a map with a choice of routes for the deceased to take, and seven gates with three keepers at each, to pass through to reach the afterlife. The Coffin Texts were intended to provide a guarantee of survival in the afterlife, and included such titles as "the spell for not dying a second death". Many of these would eventually evolve into the New Kingdom Book of the Dead.
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Outer coffin of Gua, from the tomb of Gua, Deir el-Bersha, 12th Dynasty During the Middle Kingdom (about 2040-1750 BC) the exterior of outer coffins was mainly decorated with hieroglyphic texts. The characters were incised and filled with coloured pigment. The lid of this coffin is inscribed with an address to Anubis, while on the sides there are addresses to Osiris, Isis and Nephthys, all gods who were associated with the dead. The vertical inscriptions that divide the coffin into panels guarantee the protection of Shu, Tefnut and other deities. A pair of eyes was placed on one side of the coffin so that Gua's mummy could see through to the rising sun.The interior of the coffin is decorated on all its surfaces. There are several themes, including maps of the route to the Underworld, which are part of the Book of Two Ways. This book formed part of the Coffin Texts, that were intended to help the deceased reach the Afterlife. The Coffin Texts are also inscribed on the interior of the coffin, in columns of cursive hieroglyphic script. There are also representations of objects required for the Afterlife, including food and an offering list. These representations were believed to act magically in the place of real items. The offering list guaranteed that the food would be provided eternally. |
| Courtesy of The British Museum |
The Amduat
Referred to by the Egyptians as "the book of the secret chamber", the Amduat is the oldest of all the royal funerary books. The Amduat documents the sun god's journey through the 12 divisions of the underworld, beginning on the western horizon and reappearing as Khepri, the newborn sun in the East. They correspond to the 12 hours of the night. Amduat can be interpreted to mean "that which Is in the underworld". In this book, the dead pharaoh travels through the underworld to the afterlife in his solar barque. The text describes what the deceased will find in the Underworld, along with particular spells to deal with certain obstacles along the way. Whilst most tombs in the Valley of the Kings contain passages from the book, the burial chambers of Tuthmosis III and Amenophis II contain almost the complete text.
Referred to by the Egyptians as "the book of the secret chamber", the Amduat is the oldest of all the royal funerary books. The Amduat documents the sun god's journey through the 12 divisions of the underworld, beginning on the western horizon and reappearing as Khepri, the newborn sun in the East. They correspond to the 12 hours of the night. Amduat can be interpreted to mean "that which Is in the underworld". In this book, the dead pharaoh travels through the underworld to the afterlife in his solar barque. The text describes what the deceased will find in the Underworld, along with particular spells to deal with certain obstacles along the way. Whilst most tombs in the Valley of the Kings contain passages from the book, the burial chambers of Tuthmosis III and Amenophis II contain almost the complete text.
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| Detail from the upper register of the 8th hour of the Amduat, from the tomb of Ramesses VI. Three ba-birds attend to the apparition of the sun. |
The Litany of Re
This is a two part "litany of the sun" that provides the sun God Re under 75 different forms in the first part. The second part is a series of prayers in which the pharaoh assumes various parts of nature and various deities but particularly that of the sun god. Developed in the 18th Dynasty, it also praises the king for his union with the sun god, as well as with other deities. The text was used in the entrance of most tombs from the time of Seti I, though we first know of it from the burial chamber of Tuthmosis III.
This is a two part "litany of the sun" that provides the sun God Re under 75 different forms in the first part. The second part is a series of prayers in which the pharaoh assumes various parts of nature and various deities but particularly that of the sun god. Developed in the 18th Dynasty, it also praises the king for his union with the sun god, as well as with other deities. The text was used in the entrance of most tombs from the time of Seti I, though we first know of it from the burial chamber of Tuthmosis III.
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| Litany of Re, from the tomb of Seti I. |
The Book of Gates
The Book of Gates makes its appearance in the late 18th Dynasty, and passages from the book appear in the burial chambers and the first pillared halls of most tombs thereafter. Like the Amduat, but somewhat of a more sophisticated text, this book references the hours of the night, referring to them as the "twelve gates", with emphasis on the gates as being barriers. Guardian deities will only let you pass through the gates if you know their names. The journey is made on the solar barque, and the first hour is followed by the first gate, which in turn gives entry into the second hour, and then the second gate. At the fifth gate, Osiris sits in judgement of the deceased, and the journey finally ends at the twelfth gate which is daybreak, and symbolises the rebirth of the sun.
The Book of Gates makes its appearance in the late 18th Dynasty, and passages from the book appear in the burial chambers and the first pillared halls of most tombs thereafter. Like the Amduat, but somewhat of a more sophisticated text, this book references the hours of the night, referring to them as the "twelve gates", with emphasis on the gates as being barriers. Guardian deities will only let you pass through the gates if you know their names. The journey is made on the solar barque, and the first hour is followed by the first gate, which in turn gives entry into the second hour, and then the second gate. At the fifth gate, Osiris sits in judgement of the deceased, and the journey finally ends at the twelfth gate which is daybreak, and symbolises the rebirth of the sun.
The journey through the twelve gates deals with the problems of the underworld, such as Apophis the great serpent destroyer and adversary of Re, justice, material blessings and time. The most complete texts so far discovered appear in the tomb of Ramesses VI and on the sarcophagus of Seti I.
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| The god Atum uses a stick to prevent Apophis from upsetting the passage of solar barque (shown on the upper register). Scene from the Book of Gates from the tomb of Ramesses I Apophis (Egyptian Apep) was the great adversary of the sun god Re and was the very embodiment of the powers of dissolution, darkness and non-being. He was a sort of void or "black hole" forcing those he swallowed into non-existence, a concept that the Egyptians feared so greatly. Being completely outside of the natural world, he was believed to require no nourishment other than to "breathe" his own shouts. He was a huge serpent who was thought to have existed at the beginning of time in the waters of primeval chaos prior to creation, and his power was so great that it was thought that he would continue to exist in an endlessly malevolent cycle of attack, defeat and resurgent attack. |
The Book of the Dead
Known by the Egyptians as the "Book of coming forth by day" the book is actually a collection of magical spells, many of which were derived from earlier Coffin and Pyramid Texts. Now though, it was usually written on papyrus scrolls and buried inside the sarcophagus with the deceased, presumably so that it would be both portable and close at hand.
Known by the Egyptians as the "Book of coming forth by day" the book is actually a collection of magical spells, many of which were derived from earlier Coffin and Pyramid Texts. Now though, it was usually written on papyrus scrolls and buried inside the sarcophagus with the deceased, presumably so that it would be both portable and close at hand.
The Book of the Dead was intended to guide the deceased through the various trials that they were likely to encounter before reaching the underworld. Knowledge of the appropriate spells was considered essential to achieving happiness after death. Spells or enchantments vary in distinctive ways between the texts of differing sarcophagi, depending on the prominence and other class factors of the deceased. There are over 190 chapters in some versions, and although they have many common elements, each is distinct for that particular mummy.
Books of the Dead were usually illustrated with pictures showing the tests to which the deceased would be subjected. The most important was the weighing of the heart of the dead person against Ma'at, or Truth. This was carried out by Anubis. The heart of the deceased was placed on balance scales and weighed against an ostrich feather, the symbol of the goddess Ma'at. If it was considered worthy and not weighed down with sin, it would weigh lighter than the feather. The god Thoth would be ready to record the results, and nearby lurked the monster Amit, who would wait nearby to devour the heart, should it prove unworthy. Discover more about the Book of the Dead here >>
Books of the Dead were usually illustrated with pictures showing the tests to which the deceased would be subjected. The most important was the weighing of the heart of the dead person against Ma'at, or Truth. This was carried out by Anubis. The heart of the deceased was placed on balance scales and weighed against an ostrich feather, the symbol of the goddess Ma'at. If it was considered worthy and not weighed down with sin, it would weigh lighter than the feather. The god Thoth would be ready to record the results, and nearby lurked the monster Amit, who would wait nearby to devour the heart, should it prove unworthy. Discover more about the Book of the Dead here >>
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| Nakht was a royal scribe and overseer of the army (general) at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty (c.1550-1295 BC). His Book of the Dead is a beautifully illustrated example. This papyrus shows Spell 110, a series of addresses to deities who dwell in the "next world", specifically in the Field of Offering and the Field of Rushes. The deceased was expected to undertake agricultural work in the Field of Rushes. The vignette evolved from a map of the Field in the earlier Coffin Texts. It shows areas of land surrounded by water. Nakht is shown with Thoth at top right, with the balance and feather of Maat (referring to the Judgement Scene). He then paddles his boat across the Lake of Offerings where two mummiform deities stand before a table of offerings. Nakht is also shown worshipping the Heron of Plenty. He is shown pulling flax, reaping, and ploughing below. The boat of Wennefer (a name for the god Osiris), shown with a head of a snake, is moored in a channel of the water at the bottom. Three deities of the ennead (group of nine gods) are shown bottom right. |
| Courtesy of The British Museum |
The Book of Caverns
This book gives us a vision of the underworld as a series of six pits, or caverns over which the sun god passes. Most of the underworld is illustrated, whilst the text primarily praises Osiris. It stresses the destruction of the enemies of the sun god, and references afterlife rewards and punishments. The dead King, in order to complete his journey through the underworld, must know the secret names of the serpents and be able to identify his guardian deities. The Book of Caverns is divided into two halves by two large depictions of the ram headed sun god, with each half subsequently divided into a further three parts, making a total of six sections. An almost complete version exists in the tomb of Ramesses VI, though it appears in the upper parts of others.
This book gives us a vision of the underworld as a series of six pits, or caverns over which the sun god passes. Most of the underworld is illustrated, whilst the text primarily praises Osiris. It stresses the destruction of the enemies of the sun god, and references afterlife rewards and punishments. The dead King, in order to complete his journey through the underworld, must know the secret names of the serpents and be able to identify his guardian deities. The Book of Caverns is divided into two halves by two large depictions of the ram headed sun god, with each half subsequently divided into a further three parts, making a total of six sections. An almost complete version exists in the tomb of Ramesses VI, though it appears in the upper parts of others.
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Detail from 5th section of the Book of Caverns from the tomb of Ramesses VI An officiating goddess stokes the fire beneath the enormous cauldron into which the heads and hearts of the enemies are delivered. A second cauldron contains the bound and decapitated bodies of the enemies themselves. The cauldrons are supported by the arms of the "place of annihilation". |
The Books of the Heavens
After the death of Akhenaten, a new set of books were introduced relating to the afterlife. These books centred primarily around the goddess Nut, who swallows the sun god in the evening, only to give birth to him in the morning. During the day the sun god passes visibly along her body, but during the night she swallows him and he travels through her body back to the place where he will rise once more. This book, developed during the late New Kingdom, describes the sun's passage through the heavens. Passages from these books are mostly found in Ramessid period tombs.
After the death of Akhenaten, a new set of books were introduced relating to the afterlife. These books centred primarily around the goddess Nut, who swallows the sun god in the evening, only to give birth to him in the morning. During the day the sun god passes visibly along her body, but during the night she swallows him and he travels through her body back to the place where he will rise once more. This book, developed during the late New Kingdom, describes the sun's passage through the heavens. Passages from these books are mostly found in Ramessid period tombs.
There are actually a number of individual books contained within the Books of the Heavens, but the better documented of these include the "book of the day", the "book of the night" and the "book of Nut". Closely related is the "book of the celestial cow".
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| The celestial cow, from the tomb of Seti I |
"The Book of the Celestial Cow" tells a story that mixes magic spells with the exact details of the divine cow and is purely mythological in nature. In the beginning, daylight was always present, and humans and gods cohabited on earth. Re the sun god ruled the earth for a long time. This was depicted as paradise, but the humans began to rebel against the then ageing Re. Re sent Hathor as his fiery eye to quash the rebellion and to destroy the rebels with fire. However Re ended up feeling sorry for the humans and deceived Hathor into letting some of them live. Re then re-arranged heaven and the underworld, departing from the earth on the back of the celestial cow.
The Book of the Earth
This is a four part book describing the sun's night time passage through the underworld. It was developed in the 20th dynasty, and appears in the burial chamber of several late Ramessid tombs. It also sometimes appears on some anthropoid sarcophagi of the same period. Whilst the content is similar in many ways to the Book of Caverns, there are clear differences between the two. Osiris is, of course, an central figure within the work, as is the transformation of Re, together with the ba of the blessed dead. A special theme is the journey of the sun through the earth god Aker. This actually represents an expansion on the idea of the eleventh scene in the Book of Gates, with its " barque of the earth".
This is a four part book describing the sun's night time passage through the underworld. It was developed in the 20th dynasty, and appears in the burial chamber of several late Ramessid tombs. It also sometimes appears on some anthropoid sarcophagi of the same period. Whilst the content is similar in many ways to the Book of Caverns, there are clear differences between the two. Osiris is, of course, an central figure within the work, as is the transformation of Re, together with the ba of the blessed dead. A special theme is the journey of the sun through the earth god Aker. This actually represents an expansion on the idea of the eleventh scene in the Book of Gates, with its " barque of the earth".
This was the last great composition concerning the netherworld, where the sun disc is raised up from the depths of the earth by numerous pairs of arms, and where the enemies of Egypt - those whose souls have not been blessed, are punished and destroyed in the Place of Annihilation.
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| The complete four parts of the Book of the Earth |
